Contents
vii
3.3.2
Advantages of Immobilizing Enzymes
37
3.3.2.1
Stabilization
37
3.3.2.2
Flexibility of Bioreactor Design
37
3.3.2.3
Reusability and Recovery
38
3.4
Bioconversion of Waste to Useful Products by Immobilized Enzymes
38
3.4.1
Utilization of Protein Wastes
39
3.4.2
Carbohydrates as Feedstock
39
3.4.3
Utilization of Polysaccharides
40
3.4.4
Lipids as Substrates
41
3.5
Applications of Nanotechnology for the Immobilization of Enzymes and
Bioconversion
41
3.6
Challenges and Opportunities
43
Acknowledgments
43
References
44
Part II
Bioremediation for Zero Waste
47
4
Bioremediation of Toxic Dyes for Zero Waste
49
Venkata Krishna Bayineni
4.1
Introduction
49
4.2
Background to Dye(s)
50
4.3
The Toxicity of Dye(s)
50
4.4
Bioremediation Methods
51
4.4.1
Types of Approaches: Ex situ and In situ
51
4.4.2
Microbial Remediation
52
4.4.2.1
Aerobic Treatment
52
4.4.2.2
Anaerobic Treatment
52
4.4.2.3
Aerobic–Anaerobic Treatment
52
4.4.3
Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes by Fungi
53
4.4.4
Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes by Yeast
53
4.4.5
Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes by Algae
53
4.4.6
Bacterial Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes
54
4.4.6.1
Factors Affecting Dye Decolorization and Degradation
54
4.4.7
Microbial Decolorization and Degradation Mechanisms
58
4.4.7.1
Biosorption
58
4.4.7.2
Enzymatic Degradation
58
4.4.8
Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes by Plants
(Phytoremediation)
58
4.4.8.1
Plant Mechanism for Treating Textile Dyes and Wastewater
60
4.4.8.2
Advantages of Phytoremediation
60
4.4.9
Integrated Biological, Physical, and Chemical Treatment Methods
60
4.4.10
rDNA Technology
60
4.4.11
Enzyme-Mediated Dye Removal
62
4.4.12
Immobilization Techniques
62